DR. ABDUS SALAM & DR. ABDUL QADEER in Pakistan’s History of Science

By: Dr. Munawar A. Kanday.

Two towering scientists have left an indelible mark on Pakistan’s scientific and national history: Dr Abdus Salam, the theoretical physicist who became the first Muslim Nobel laureate, and Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan, the metallurgist who led Pakistan’s uranium enrichment programme and was hailed as the father of the country’s nuclear bomb. Both served the nation with immense dedication in their respective fields, and both achieved global recognition in different ways. Yet, the nation’s treatment of these two geniuses remained starkly unequal.

Dr Abdus Salam was a man of pure science, deeply invested in the fundamental laws that govern the universe. His work in theoretical physics revolutionised the scientific world, and in 1979 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to electroweak unification, a cornerstone of the Standard Model.[1] This was not only a personal milestone but a proud moment for Pakistan on the international stage. Salam was associated with numerous global scientific institutions, and was highly respected across the academic world.

However, Dr Salam was not confined to theory alone. It is a lesser-known but vital fact of history that during the presidency of Ayub Khan, he quietly initiated the foundational work for Pakistan’s nuclear programme. Alarmed by India’s growing nuclear ambitions, Dr Salam began building scientific institutions and advised the government on nuclear research. Under his supervision, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) was reorganised, and young scientists were sent abroad to gain expertise in nuclear physics.[2] Though this phase was preliminary and largely confidential, it laid the theoretical and institutional groundwork for Pakistan’s nuclear ambitions, which were later advanced by Munir Ahmad Khan and given practical shape by Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan.

Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan entered the scene in the 1970s with a very different skill set but an equally critical mission. He successfully established Pakistan’s uranium enrichment facilities and oversaw the development of centrifuge technology that eventually enabled Pakistan to become the world’s seventh nuclear power.[3] His work had direct implications for national security and sovereignty. As a result, he was celebrated as a national hero and bestowed with the title “Mohsin-e-Pakistan” (Benefactor of Pakistan). Streets, schools, and institutions were named in his honour.

It is worth mentioning that in the final years of his life, Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan also resorted to playing a card similar to what many Pakistani politicians have used for populist gain: exploiting anti-Ahmadi sentiment. In a public programme, he proudly proclaimed, “I was born in Bhopal, and Bhopal is a place where no Qadiani was ever born.” This statement, meant to draw applause and nationalist approval, was in fact a glaring falsehood. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has a long-established presence in Bhopal, and uncountable Ahmadis have been born there, including the renowned poet Ubaidullah Aleem. Such remarks not only distort historical facts but also reflect how deeply ingrained religious prejudice has influenced public discourse in Pakistan, even among its celebrated figures.

Yet, the national treatment of these two eminent scientists could not have been more different. Dr Salam, due to his affiliation with the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, was increasingly marginalised after the constitutional amendment of 1974, which declared Ahmadis non-Muslims. Despite his Nobel Prize and global acclaim, the state failed to fully acknowledge his contributions.[4] He was largely omitted from official textbooks, his achievements were downplayed, and even the epitaph on his grave, “First Muslim Nobel Laureate”, was officially altered to erase the word “Muslim.” Thus, a towering intellectual of global stature was effectively exiled from the national narrative due to religious discrimination.

On the other hand, Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan received official reverence and widespread public adulation. However, even his legacy came under scrutiny. In 2004, under international pressure, he was accused of proliferating nuclear technology to other states. He was made to appear on state television to apologise to the nation, a move many believed was orchestrated to deflect diplomatic blame.[5] Over time, the public increasingly saw him as a scapegoat who had been compelled into confession by geopolitical compulsions.

One of these men was embraced by the world but rejected by his own nation; the other was honoured by his people but shunned by the global community. In this contrast lies both pain and pride, reverence and remorse. For a complete and honest historical record, Pakistan must one day come to terms with both of its scientific sons, not through the lens of faith or politics, but through the enduring legacy of their contributions to knowledge and national security.

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References:

[1] Nobel Prize. (1979). The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1979/salam/facts/

[2] Pervez Hoodbhoy. (1991). Islam and Science: Religious Orthodoxy and the Battle for Rationality. Zed Books.

[3] Gordon Corera. (2006). Shopping for Bombs: Nuclear Proliferation, Global Insecurity, and the Rise and Fall of the A.Q. Khan Network. Oxford University Press.

[4] Ahmed, Ishtiaq. (2011). The Punjab: Bloodied, Partitioned and Cleansed. Oxford University Press.